Parental Supervision and Adolescent Drinking Behavior

I. Hypothesis. The purpose of this research is to find out if parental supervision has an influence in adolescents’ drinking behavior. II. Literature Review. Research suggests that parents play an important role in the lives of children. Some of these parents have a negative or positive influence on the lives of the children. Shin, Edwards, Heeren, Amodeo (2009) stated that in the United Stated nearly 3.3 million referrals were made to state and local child protective services (CPS) for assessment or investigation in 2006. Out of these million referrals, 905, 000 were judged to be victims of child abuse or neglect. Childhood maltreatment has been associated to alcohol abuse. â€Å"Although many studies have found a†¦show more content†¦Although, existing literature has been inconsistent, communication between parent-child about substance use make adolescents apprehensive about is drinking and lowers alcohol, tobacco, or other drug (ATOD) (Williams, Nigg, Kittinger, Eller, 2010). William et al. (2010) stated that overall, adolescent alcohol drinking and parent expectations, attitudes, and permissiveness i s more conclusive. When parents provide a clear-alcoholic specific rule in the house, drinking behavior has been delayed in both younger and older adolescents. In a telephone survey of 20,000 adolescents aged 12 to 17 stated that they disapproved of substance use when their parents strongly disapproved of them. However talking about disapproval of drinking in the household is not enough; Williams et al. (2010) tried to study if parent’s restriction plays a role in the child’s perception of alcohol drinking. The 12 item Youth Alcohol Survey was used to assessed adolescent drinking behavior that was designed by the Hawaii Strategic Prevention framework State Incentive Grant (SPF-SIG) Maui County Advisory Committee. Adolescents aged 12 to 17 were recruited throughout Maui County from eleven youth centers and after school programs. The results demonstrated that these adolescents had some degree of restriction at home. A majority of the adolescent (80%) reported that theirS how MoreRelatedAlcohol and Teen Drinking Essay552 Words   |  3 Pagesmood and behavior (heroin, cocaine, marijuana).† This issue interests me due to the many friends I have who drink overwhelmingly. Also, I have so many cousins that are younger than me that I am concerned about with this issue. There are many reasons to why teens may drink, not all of which are reasonable but is the truth, from what I know. Teen drinking can also result in very many mishaps that are mostly a terrible consequence. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Many things can cause teen drinking. OneRead More Effects of Underage Drinking on Society Essay1100 Words   |  5 PagesUnderage Drinking Anyone who is below eighteen years of age is considered as underage and laws in many countries prohibit such a person from consuming alcohol. Alcohol happens to be the most commonly abused drug not only among the youth but also among adults. This paper explores underage drinking, its effects on the society and outlines what can be done to curb it. Young people are considered to constitute the largest number of alcohol consumers and they account for a large portion of alcoholRead MoreUnderage Alcohol And Alcohol Abuse1597 Words   |  7 Pageskids under the age of 21.† (fact sheets- underage drinking, 2015) Statistics also say that 68 percent of high school seniors have tried alcohol, 37.4 percent of those high school seniors have drunk alcohol in the last month, and 23.5 percent of high school sophomores have also drunk in the last month. Among high school students within the month they were surveyed, 35 percent of them drank some type of alcohol, 21 percent participated in â€Å"binge drinking† which is consuming more than 5 alcoholic beveragesRead MoreTeenage Binge Drinking and its Consequences1294 Words   |  6 PagesTeenage drinking is among the issues that have received respectable attention from researchers owing to its increase. In the United States as well as other countries, underage drinking has beco me a prevalent issue with often far-reaching consequences. Teenagers, who engage in binge drinking, are likely to be exposed to other dangers, such as psychological issues, drinking-related accidents, and violent crimes. The increased prevalence of this problem makes it imperative to understand contributingRead MoreIntegrating Peer Training With Social Norms800 Words   |  4 Pages311) The prevailing literature shows that there is an opposite relationship among parental practices that embrace better parenting monitoring and control of youth doings and their risky behaviors such as drug use, suggesting that youths are less likely to engage in unsafe actions if parents can supervise them. According to (Vaughan, Kratz, D Argent, 2011, p. 1-16) it is assumed that school integration and parental contribution in class relates to a lower risk of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuanaRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol On The Prevention Of Underage Drinking1280 Words   |  6 PagesSuggestions of a possible solution a. Education i. Nature. What, specifically, is the plan? Not only does family play a significant role in the prevention of underage drinking, so does education. The plan is to get more schools involved in teaching youth about the potential risks associated with underage and irresponsible drinking habits. ii. Strengths. In what ways would this plan effectively fulfill the requirements or criteria of a solution, that is make notable progress in the direction andRead MoreTeenage Drug And Alcohol Abuse2166 Words   |  9 PagesTeenage drug and alcohol abuse can come from a number of different factors such as emotional disorders, stress, social events and other adolescent pressures. Adolescent is a period of time when teens have a lot of pressures to fit in, establish their own identities, it’s also a time of growth and development, and also the great desire to fit in which leads teens to give into peer pressure. Teens are going through an emotional change in themselves emotionally, physically and also hormonally duringRead MoreIntroduction. Alcohol The Debate Of The Ages, Between The1730 Words   |  7 PagesWithin this topic, always comes the concern of when is it appropriate for people to legally drink alcohol. Currently, in the United States the minimum legal drinking age (MDLA) is the age 21. There are many reasons and sciences behind why the U.S. choose the age of 21. On July 17, 1984 the president signed an act called National Minimum Drinking Age Act (NMDAA). This mandated all the states, to federally instate this law within time all came around and the national age in the United States became 21Read MoreThe Dangers Of Adolescent Binge Drinking1279 Words   |  6 Pagesbetter half. Throughout your high school years, our friends and companions get to be more important than our own families. They are the ones we as adolescents turn to in an emergency for backing. Because of feeling the need to fit in with our peers, there is a steady associate weight. This has been one of the principles calculated in high school binge drinking. There is frequently a necessity to contend with one another. When living in a fraternity or sorority house, on campus, there is consistent partyingRead MoreMy Point Today Is Poor Parental Guidance859 Words   |  4 Pagese ver witnessed children interacting, perhaps a demonstration of antisocial and rude behavior? Despite negative consequences, ones unjust behavior can cause health and safety issues. Children tend to adapt to the things that surround them a way to help guide children is love and support. According to, Jennifer Warren in the article, â€Å"writes,† on sportsmanship children learning (bad behavior skills) from adults. (However, an open door to violence, alcohol, and drug abuse, will reveal anger characteristics

The Censorship of Huckleberry Finn Essay - 1273 Words

The Censorship of Huckleberry Finn Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a significant book in the history of American literature that presents readers with the truth of our past American society in aspects such as speech, mannerisms, and tradition that we must embrace rather than dismiss by censorship. It is a novel that has been praised and proclaimed America’s â€Å"first indigenous literary masterpiece† (Walter Dean Howells) as well as one that has been criticized and declared obscene. It has undergone much scorn and condemnation as a novel and many feel that it should be censored. This, however, is not the way it should be. Huckleberry Finn is a masterpiece and, as a matter of fact, it is one on many levels. The story itself, though†¦show more content†¦One of the reasons that Huckleberry Finn was banned in the past was because people found the dialect that Twain used unintelligible and shameful to the United States. These people thought that the manner of speech in which the novel was written would make Americans appear simple-minded. This may be the case with some, but the vernacular that the author used was the real dialect that majority of the population practiced in the time period that Huck existed. The novel is not meant to put America to shame, but rather to show the reality of how people spoke and acted in the mid nineteenth century. The vernacular is yet another aspect that makes the novel truthful because it gives readers a realistic view into the life of people from that time in American history. Huckleberry Finn is also lifted into great literary status by Twain’s compelling use of symbolism. An example of this symbolism is the Mississippi River. Throughout the novel, the river symbolizes life’s journey and, eventually, Huck’s natural integrity. It represents a place of ease and safety for both Huck and Jim. There is a major difference between their life on the river and their life on the land. On the river, life for Huck is peaceful and easy yet not without its dangers, whilst life on the land is most often cruel, demanding, and deceitful. Another example is how life on the raft is a paradox because, evenShow MoreRelated Banishment Censorship of Twains Huckleberry Finn Essay774 Words   |  4 PagesBanishment Censorship of Twains Huckleberry Finn Banishment? The novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, has received much criticism through the years. Yet Ernest Hemingway, among other great American writers, considers this work a great American classic. This novel addresses many social issues in the South before the Civil War, causing some critics to find it racist or degrading to the African American culture. For this reason, these critics often attempt to ban HuckleberryRead MoreLanguage in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Essay719 Words   |  3 PagesMark Twain’s classic novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is arguably the best piece of American Literature ever written. However, the excessive use of the ‘n-word’ has caused a dispute on whether the book should be censored to fit the demands of modern day readers who hope to make an edited version without the slur. The release of an edited version will reduce the message Twain is relaying to his audience. Twain’s choice of language allows the reader to travel back in time to the 1800’s andRead MoreHuckleberry Finn Too Offensive For School?880 Words   |  4 PagesHuckleberry Finn too Offensive for School? A widely debated topic concerning, Mark Twain’s classic Huckleberry Finn centers on its content which may or may not be too offensive to be allowed on public school reading lists. The NAACP and concerned parents want Huckleberry Finn â€Å"removed from mandatory reading lists, for the books damaging effects on African-American students† (Hentoff 98). The book did not get removed; in â€Å"1998 Judge Reinhardt wrote: ‘an important part of education is thinking criticallyRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain983 Words   |  4 Pageseverything, especially with what words one can say or write. A person must be able to know when is the appropriate moment to say a certain something. This is Mark Twain is criticized about his novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a novel about a runaway orphan boy named Huckleberry Finn who is accompanied by a runaway slave named Jim. As they sail down the Mississippi Rive, together they encounter problems and life lessons. Throughout this novel Twain uses the term â€Å"nigger† because of this thereRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Samuel Langhorne Clemens1325 Words   |  6 PagesAlexis Timm Mrs. Mirosh 1st hour English 11 21 February 2017 To Read or Not To Read The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel published by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name as Mark Twain, in 1884. The story is more than just a story however as many adults, parents, and educators believe that this book is unfit for a classroom setting. What they are unable or (unwilling) to see are the benefits of reading and analyzing this story. It allows students to understand historyRead More Censorship Should NOT be Placed on Books Essay1072 Words   |  5 PagesCensorship Should NOT be Placed on Books   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Censorship... a system under which official censors must give permission before communications of a specified type can lawfully be made (Wilgoren, 1). Recently censorship has become a major problem in our society. Censorship should not be banned on books. People should not be told they cannot read a book. Unfortunately history has shown that words can be used for ill as well as for good, to destroy lives as well as to enhance them? (SteffensRead MoreHuckleberry Finn Persuasive Essay1571 Words   |  7 Pagesmatter- ‘tis the difference between the lightning bug and lightning.†(Mark Twain). Mark Twain, the author of an extraordinary yet controversial novel; The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn had a great way of capturing moments in time and bringing them to life through the use of meaningful and direct diction. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been a vexed novel for it s a use of the â€Å"N-word†. However, many scholars and associations have devised a â€Å"solution† for this problem such as, completely banningRead MoreEssay on Prejudice and Racism in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn833 Words   |  4 PagesPrejudice and Racism in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn      Ã‚   The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, is an excellent example of racism in literature, because it uses language describing African Americans which goes beyond satire.   It treats them as objects and perpetuates stereotypes. It does not expose and deal with racism, as many advocates of its reading claim, but encourages an attitude of superiority that is unnecessary and intolerable. In order to ridRead MoreEssay about School Censorship is Detrimental to Education1519 Words   |  7 PagesSchool Censorship is Detrimental to Education       Mark Twain, John Steinbeck, Harper Lee, Maya Angelou. What do these writers have in common? Sure, they are all great American authors, but there is something else. They are all banned. Censored. Forbidden. Who has not read a book by at least one of these authors? All are great pieces of literature and should be crucial parts of the high school curriculum. School censorship of books is detrimental to the educational development of highRead MoreEssay on Censorship is Not the Answer983 Words   |  4 PagesCensorship is Not the Answer Congress shall make no law... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press. - First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution This is true liberty when free born men, having to advise the public, may speak free. -Euripides, Fifth Century B.C. There is room for all of us - and our divergent view - under the First Amendment. - Spiro Agnew ... They have expelled Huck from their library as trash and suitable only for the slums. That will sell 25,000

Consumer Law of Australia LexisNexis Butterworths

Question: Describe about the Consumer Law of Australia for LexisNexis Butterworths. Answer: 1. Issues: An invitation of treat is given by Ogies Car Sales Pty Ltd for selling a one year second hand car. The offer is given in the price of $25,000. The offer was accepted by Lara at a rate of $22,500 cash. A sale document has been created and written contract took place between Lara and Ogie. The issue raised that warranty card was not given by Ogie to Lara. In the advertisement 12 months warranty was mentioned but the warranty card was not given her when she was buying the car. Here the contract is formed by warranty is not given, so obligation of contract takes place in this case. The question arises: Is this a breach of rules of the contract? Is Ogie violating the rules of consumer rights act in this case? Rules As Australian Consumer law (ACL) which fall under Schedule 2 of the Competition and Consumer act 2010, Ogie has done unfair practice of business. He has breached the rule of part 5 of Trade Practices act 1974 (Cth). Under section 18 of Consumer act, it is mentioned that when a product is sold by a seller to a buyer than he should provide the warranty papers, bill receipt and mention the condition of the product which Ogie has not done while selling the car to Lara, which is also breach of contract law[1]. The contract is valid because invitation of treat, offer and acceptance has formed in the contract between an offeror and offeree but condition of the BMW car was not stated properly and warranty is not provided. Both conditions and warranty is important to be stated while forming contract which is not stated properly by Ogie. So it can be said the contract is not under consideration and Ogie contract will fall under unconscionable conduct which can be declared by the court if Lara files case against Ogie for breaching the rules of Consumer Law[2]. It can be said that the customer is misrepresented by the seller by selling a BMW in high rate without any bills and warranty card. The agreement cannot be proved as enforceable under Australian Contract law because of missing of the terms, conditions and warranty of the product. But Lara should have followed the conduct of Consumer rights act before buying the car and she should have asked for the bill and the warranty card which is her carelessness[3]. The court can raise question in this conflict. For example, Oscar chess Ltd v Williamss case can be mentioned here. In this case, the owner of a second hand car (Morris Minor) tends to sell the car stating to a car dealer that it is a 1948 model. The selling contract took place between the seller and the dealer but later the dealer came to know that the car is 1939 model. For that reason the dealer sued the seller but the court said it was the dealers fault that he has not checked the condition before as he was expertise in car. So the contract is not enforceable because the condition of the car is of mentioned here even misleading act took place which the seller did with the buyer. This case is similar to the case of Lara and Ogie at some extent because the victim is misleads because of their own carelessness and the selling contract is not enforceable in both the case. Application The contract is not enforceable because of lack of presence of the elements, terms and conditions and misleading has done by the seller (Ogie) while selling the car to Lara. In a valid contract there is offer, acceptance, legal intention, capacity, considerations, terms, conditions and warranty. Offer and acceptance after invitation of treat has made in this contract but in this contract terms, conditions and warranty is missing. As per rule of part 5 of Trade Practices act 1974, commercial trade procedures are not followed by Ogie properly which is breach of Fair Work Act. As per Trade practice act, the rules of commercial programs and method of selling the car by providing appropriate rudiments are not given by Ogie to Lara[4]. For that reason she can sue Ogie under Consumer rights act. Conclusion In this case breach of rules of Consumer Competition Act, Contract Act and Trade practice act of Australia has done because the seller did not maintain all the rules of a contract and for that reason the contract is not enforceable under law[5]. 2. Issues Lara bought a second hand BMW car from Ogies Car Sales Pty Ltd at the rate of $25,000. A sales document was made when the selling contract was made between both of them but all the necessary rudiments are not mentioned here. The problem occurs after Lara bought the car. After three months it was identified that the car was slipping out of the gear and for servicing it took $2,500. Even it was found by the mechanic that the car can run 175,000 km and not more than that. Here Lara had to confront with the problem as she was misrepresented by the seller (Ogie). The question arises: What should be the remedies taken by Lara in this case? Is Ogie totally guilty? What rights can be claimed by Lara from Ogie? What should be the penalty which Ogie has to give to Lara? Rules According to Competition and Consumer Act 2010 unfair practices in business is not allowed. As per section 18 of Australian Securities and investment Commission, the federal court can punish Ogie if the Plaintiff (Lara) sues Ogie. As per section 52 of Trade Practice Act, Ogie has not maintained the appropriate rules of business in the contract. Ogie has sold the second hand car which has fault[6]. He did misrepresentation by doing fraudulence with the consumer (Lara). As per misrepresentation act 1922 the court can order to give penalty by Ogie to Lara or return back his money because he has done fraudulence with Lara[7]. For example, case like Concrete Constructions (NSW) Pty Ltd v Nelson [1990] HCA 17 which is related with misleading of deceptive conduct can be described here. The companys foreman wrongly misguided a building worker for that reason the building worker is injured. The foreman did deceptive conduct by breaching the rules of sec 18 of Trade practice act. Under sec 52 of Trade commerce act the workers family can claim monetary compensation in this case because the worker was misrepresented by the foreman[8]. As per Consumer and Competition Act 2010 Lara can claim monetary compensation or return back of money from Ogie. According to Consumer rights Act or Consumer Protection Act Lara can ask compensation from Ogie. As per Section 232 of Consumer rights act injunctions is ordered by court with compensatory orders. The plaintiff or sufferer can ask compensation in that case[9]. A consumer has rights to ask for the guarantee from the seller before buying any product but Lara did not do that and accepted the odder and become the victim of misrepresentation. Ogie will be punished under criminal conduct for breaching the consumer rights act. Application As per ACL Regulations of part 6 and 7 of Competition and Consumer regulation 2010, when a sales agreement is done a seller has to assure that the agreement is not unsolicited; warranties and repair notice should be provided by the seller to the consumer; and other rights of payment should be described. But Ogie has violated all the ACL regulations and misrepresented Lara by selling second hand car which is defected and Lara has to invest more amounts for servicing the car. Lara was running loss in this case. It was Ogies liability to do servicing of the car but he did not do that. As per chapter 3 of Australian Consumer law false misleading is prohibited by ACL for suppling unsolicited goods. As per chapter 4 of ACL Ogie has done criminal offense. As a remedy Lara can ask for the refund, repair and replacement from Ogie. If she sues Ogie (defendant) under consumer protection acts than he has to give the refund back to Lara (plaintiff). Even she can state all the rights of Consumer rights act and she can clarify at front of the court that how Ogie mispleaded her and how she is running financial loss because of buying the product from the market. As per section 232 of Consumer Rights Act, the remedy can be asked by Lara from Ogie[10]. Conclusion In this case breach of Consumer law has occurred which is done by the defendant against the plaintiff. The consumer competition acts rules are also breached by the seller and for that reason the buyer has to face various problems. Misrepresentation has also occurred and valid contract is also not made between both of them. All the remedies with proper application has also mentioned with various legal consideration to solve the case of Ogie. Bibliography Radan, Peter and John Gooley,Principles Of Australian Contract Law(LexisNexis Butterworths, 2009) Steinwall, Ray,Trade Practices Act 1974(LexisNexis Butterworths Australia, 2010) Steinwall, Ray,Annotated Competion And Consumer Act 2010(LexisNexis Butterworths, 2011) Vout, Paul T,Unconscionable Conduct(Lawbook Co, 2006) Legislation Australian Consumer Law(2016) Consumerlaw.gov.au https://consumerlaw.gov.au/the-australian-consumer-law/legislation/ The Australian Consumer Law(2016) consumerlaw.gov.au https://consumerlaw.gov.au/files/2015/06/ACL_framework_overview.pdf 1Legislation Australian Consumer Law(2016) Consumerlaw.gov.au https://consumerlaw.gov.au/the-australian-consumer-law/legislation/.

Theories and Methods in Counseling free essay sample

This paper will take the reader briefly through the three grand theories of counseling in psychology and then onto the two emergent theories, which are based on observation, biology, sociology or anthropology. From that framework, some methods/therapies will be discussed and then a brief look at legal and ethical concerns will be presented in order to prepare the reader for the author’s Biblical perspective, which highlights the obvious missing element in the development of these theories/therapies. The Biblical references are the author’s personal choices and not the only relevant instances to be found in the Bible for spiritual insight into the theories and methods of psychology. The paper will then conclude with this penman’s personal reflection on this material and how it relates to her future practice of counseling. Keywords: Freud, grand theories, emergent, methods, therapies, ethics, Biblical Theories and Methods in Counseling Psychological theories and the therapies that result from them are of great importance to the counselor who is engaged in helping people through difficult times and/or mental illness. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories and Methods in Counseling or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The modern western tradition of counseling, and in particular psychoanalysis, began with Sigmund Freud. Very little effort is given here to understand where his ideas originated, but, that does not mean his thoughts were independent of his culture, time period, and personal experiences. For Freud, and in fact everyone after him, individual theories and concepts evolve and in time â€Å"new† theories appear as older ideas give way to new-found â€Å"truths†. This paper begins with Freud and then onto the two other grand theories, behaviorism and cognitive theory. On this journey, the reader will be traveling from the end of the Enlightenment, through modernism and end up in the post-modern world. Although not directly stated, this can be seen as Freud’s opinion that mankind is just incapable of understanding the sub-conscious progressing onto behaviorism where â€Å"reason† should be able to explain all things. Reason failed to solve all the issues that could trouble a person and the pursuit of understanding how people think (cognitive theory) began which lead to new methods and therapies. In parallel, society changed with legal and ethical questions demanding attention. The paper then progresses toward general Biblical concepts ending in the author’s personal reflection concerning counseling. In the counseling profession, there is support to be eclectic when choosing a therapy and without knowledge of the origins of various therapies and understanding how they are to operate one cannot be effective. Add to this the focus of solving a person’s specific issue with time constraints, demands a counselor who is on firm intellectual and spiritual ground. Grand theories Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic theory is credited to Sigmund Freud whose practice as a physician involved treating people with mental illness. He developed his psychosexual theories after hearing patients relate their dreams and fantasies. Freud posited that development in the first six years is characterized by sexual happiness related to a specific part of the body (Berger, 2008). Birth to one year is the oral stage, one to three years of age represents the anal stage, three to six years is the phallic stage, six to eleven years the latency stage, and the adolescent period is described as the genital stage, continuing into adulthood where it remains dominant. Problems arise in individuals when conflicts in one or more of these stages are unresolved (Berger, 2008). Unresolved conflicts are revealed by the unconscious via dreams, fantasies, slips of the tongue, and the symbolic content of the symptoms, as well as free association, projection, and posthypnotic suggestion symptoms (Corey, 2009). This approach suggests that the unconscious holds the key to resolving neurotic symptoms. Here the therapist can help the patient by being a â€Å"blank screen† where â€Å"transference† can take place thus beginning the work of change. This can be a long process (Jones amp; Butman, 2011) and requires a therapist who is well qualified as well as a client who is ready and willing to change (Corey, 2005). Freud also gave modern psychology the concepts of the â€Å"id†, described as instinctual and the principal source of psychic energy, the â€Å"ego† which contacts the external world and provides executive control, and the â€Å"superego† where the moral code resides to decide whether an action is right or wrong, good or bad (Corey, 2009). The â€Å"working through† described above was termed â€Å"catharsis† and could be considered an energy exchange where the â€Å"id† releases energy in appropriate ways (Jones, amp; Butman, 2011). Freud does not use the term catharsis in the Stoic sense where it implied â€Å"the separation of the mind from the emotional attachment to external, material things (Robertson, 2005, para. 8). The goal of these efforts was to be able to reconcile the unconscious and conscious, enabling behavior based on reality and not on instincts or guilt (Corey, 2009). Erik Erikson also was of the opinion that problems later in life were the result of childhood conflicts and constructed his eight stages of development with the first five being similar to Freud. However, his view was from the cultural and family perspective and was considered psychosocial (Berger, 2008) with the goal of conflict resolution in each stage of development. Erikson saw the conflicts as trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, imitative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. solation, generativity vs. stagnation and integrity vs. despair (Corey, 2009). Psychoanalytic theory certainly captured people’s imagination and with a bigger than life champion, Sigmund Freud, it was birthed around the modern world. Behaviorism There is no question that Freud was a â€Å"rock star† however the smoke did clear due in part to the efforts of John Watson. He felt that psychology should, â€Å"†¦ limit ourselves to thing s that can be observed, and formulate laws concerned only with those things †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Berger, 2008, p. 38). This began the endeavor to understand how and why people act and think the way they do based on a yet to be discovered set of laws (Berger, 2008). Researchers were known as â€Å"learning theorist†, because it was thought that behavior is learned, deciphering how the learning took place became the focus of this new science. Observing not only people but, animals as well, clues to this mystery were to be uncovered. Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize winner for his insights into animal digestion, uncovered â€Å"conditioning†, or how certain stimuli will consistently result in certain responses (Berger, 2008). The term classical conditioning, also known as respondent conditioning (Corey, 2005) became an accepted explanation of behavior: however it was not an all encompassing explanation. Recognizing the limitations, B. F. Skinner believed that classical conditioning explained behavior in simple circumstances, but saw that in complex areas of life, behavior will be modified if a reward or avoidance of adverse stimuli occurs (Corey, 2009). He called this operant conditioning that is also known as â€Å"instrumental conditioning† (Berger, 2008, p. 39). From this, another term, reinforcement came into use to take the place of reward. Reward implies immediacy while reinforcement does not necessarily happen every time an action is taken. Also reinforcement can be positive or negative, which will eventually modify behavior (Corey, 2009). The new science of behaviorism theory (BT) was at odds with psychoanalytic theory (PT) in several areas. Regarding the unconscious, PT posits that it is unknown while BT believes that it can be known and can be a barrier to self-improvement. Behavior that is observed is considered a symptom in PT and BT only looks at what a person does. PT states that childhood experiences remain an influence throughout one’s entire life while BT looks to current conditioning to unlearn and even reverse habits and patterns learned in childhood. The final dispute is extremely interesting in its far reaching implications, PT believes â€Å"†¦ most aspects of human development are beyond the reach of scientific experiment; uses ancient myths, the words of disturbed adults, dreams †¦ as raw material† while BT is described as â€Å"proud to be science, dependent on verifiable data and carefully controlled experiments; discards ideas that sound good but are not proven† (Berger, 2008, p. 8). Behaviorism, as a theory and science, gained acceptance and continued to expand in scope. This mechanistic view of conditioning, although clean and precise, could not explain all behaviors. People can learn from others without the benefit of reward or reinforcement. Again, from the observation of animals and people, another perspective, known as cognitive theory began. Cognitive Moving from the explanations of behavior as a science, interest began to grow in how the thought process works. Why do different people think the way they do, what formed their individual process, and how are these processes organized? An early pioneer in this work was Jean Piaget who held that thoughts and expectations greatly impact one’s actions, assumptions, beliefs and values (Berger, 2008). Cognitive theory also recognizes that peoples’ thought processes are malleable through time and experience. As the thought process changes so does behavior and Piaget managed to identify four major periods of cognitive development; sensorimotor from birth to two years of age where learning is active with no conceptual or reflective thought, preoperational takes over from two to six years of age with language being used to understand their egocentric world, concrete operational begins at six years of age and continues to eleven years of age with the child applying logic to interpret experiences objectively, however thinking is limited to what is in their immediate environment and experience, and formal operational beginning at twelve years of age and continuing for the rest of one’s life where abstractions and hypothetical concepts are reasoned analytically as well as emotionally (Berger, 2008). Under this theory, intellectual advancement occurs when a person tries to achieve a mental balance or â€Å"cognitive equilibrium† (Berger, 2008, p. 44). One tool used to achieve this end is to make sense of new experiences from the vantage point of preexisting ideas, which is termed assimilation. If these new experiences cannot be assimilated then pre-existing ideas may need to be updated in order to achieve â€Å"accommodation’ (Berger, 2008, p. 45). In summary, it can be stated that development using cognitive theory is where growth is an active process in responding to new and challenging ideas, while the psychoanalytic approach maintains that growth is dependent on maturity and behaviorism postulates that repetition is the key to growth (Berger, 2008). The ideas put forth in the three grand theories were formulated nearly a century ago and provided a springboard for new developments. Emergent Sociocultural In the grand theories one can see that the focus was on the individual and then began to expand to where it was believed our action with others shaped our growth. Surprisingly, the founder of sociocultural theory, Lev Vygotsky, worked in global obscurity in Soviet Russia and his ideas were not accessible until after the Cold War ended (Berger, 2008). Vygotsky had a large group of people who were both economically and ethnically diverse as well as children who were considered mentally retarded to observe (Berger, 2008). His theory is built upon the idea that people live in societies and therefore they must acquire specific capabilities and knowledge in order to function in their society. Tutors who come in the form of teachers, friends, and even strangers must guide the novice, in society. Together they offer â€Å"guided participation† to help the novice learn in an informal way. This idea must be coupled with the concept of â€Å"zone of proximal development† (ZPD) where the student must be in the â€Å"zone†, an area where the material is not already known and the material is not too difficult at that particular time. A major departure from the grand theories is that guided participation is an active process where the student and the teacher learn from each other (Berger, 2008). There is certainly a great amount of merit in this theory and it can be observed everyday in society. There is however, a concern that the particular society itself may have questionable values (Berger, 2008). Epigenetic Epigenetic theory is a recent theory that draws from biology, genetics and chemistry. The main construct is that, â€Å"†¦ genes interact with the environment to allow development (Gottlieb, 2003)† (Berger, 2008, p. 49) According to this theory all physical and psychological traits are influenced by genes. Combine this with the development process and one can conclude that this interaction results in a specific range of outcomes or a â€Å"reaction range†. These outcomes are not automatic, for example, having a genetic disposition to become an addict simply does not equate to becoming an addict (Berger, 2008). The next sections will bring the reader closer to some modern day therapies found in psychology and are not an exhaustive list by any means. Methods / Therapies Existential Therapy Existential therapy, whose most famous advocates were Viktor Frankl and Rollo May, is more of a philosophical approach than a major psychological theory (Wilks, 2003) however, it bears mentioning because it has a place in counseling. At the center of this â€Å"therapy’ is that each individual has free will and life is not deterministic (Corey, 2009). The first step is to help the client discover areas where they have acquiesced and relinquished control. This is the beginning of realizing their full potential and next is encouraging them to purposefully act toward that end (Fernando, 2007). The core concepts of freedom and responsibility are communicated to the client by insightful maneuvering of the counselor (Fernando, 2007). Distinctive to the existential approach is that suffering can be meaningful and a tremendous precipitator for change (Fernando, 2007). Behavior Therapy Behavior therapy is based on behaviorism. B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura furthered the original premise. The basic concepts have been outlined in the section above; but it is worth mentioning the contribution of Albert Bandura with his development of social learning theory that combined classical and operant conditioning with observational learning (Corey, 2009). This therapy is non-deterministic and maintains that the individual is the â€Å"†¦ producer and product of his or her environment† (Corey, 2009, p. 237). With that said it should come as no surprise that the goals of this therapy are for the client to have greater personal choice and the generation of new conditions for learning (Corey, 2009). Cognitive Behavior Therapy Cognitive behavior therapies are the expansion of behavior therapy. Here we can see variations on the theme as presented by Albert Ellis who developed rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), Aaron T. Beck’s version of cognitive therapy (CT), and Donald Meichenbaum’s cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) (Corey, 2009). These are all short term approaches and share the following; collaboration between the therapist and the client, the premise that psychological distress is a result of cognitive disturbances, changing cognition will result in improvement, and that the goal is resolution of a specific problem in a short period of time (Corey, 2009). The client plays an active role during the entire process including â€Å"homework†. It has been posited that these theories do not put forth any objective truth and perhaps their purpose is to provide a narrative structure (Hansen, 2006). There has been research into â€Å"third wave† or mindfulness based cognitive therapy that is showing promise (Bhanji, 2011) and focuses on changing the â€Å"relationship to inner experiences† (Bhanji, 2011 p. 65) as opposed to modifying thought content. Legal Issues Regarding Theory and Method The previous sections have introduced basic information about various theories and methods.